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Marking added to a letter

Diacritics in Latin & Greek emphasis acute ´ double astute ˝ grave ` double grave  ̏ circumflex ˆ caron, háček ˇ breve ˘ inverted breve   ̑ cedilla ¸ diaeresis, umlaut ¨ dot · palatal hook   ̡ retroflex hook   ̢ claw above  ̉ horn  ̛ iota subscript  ͅ macron ˉ ogonek, nosinė ˛ perispomene  ͂ overring ˚ underring ˳ rough animate ῾ smooth breathing ᾿ Marks sometimes used every bit diacritics apostrophe ' bar ◌̸ colon : comma , full stop/period . hyphen ˗ prime ′ tilde ~ Diacritical marks in other scripts Arabic diacritics Early Cyrillic diacritics kamora  ҄ pokrytie  ҇ titlo  ҃ Hebrew diacritics Indic diacritics anusvara ं ং ଂ ം avagraha ऽ ঽ ଽ ఽ ഽ ྅ chandrabindu ँ ఁ ྃ nuqta ़ virama ् ് ్ ್ ් ် visarga ः ঃ ଃ ஃ Gurmukhī diacritics Khmer diacritics Thai diacritics IPA diacritics Japanese kana diacritics dakuten ﾞ handakuten ﾟ Syriac diacritics Related Dotted circle ◌ Punctuation marks Logic symbols

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A diacritic (likewise diacritical mark, diacritical signal, diacritical sign, or emphasis) is a glyph added to a letter of the alphabet or to a basic glyph. The term derives from the Aboriginal Greek διακριτικός ( diakritikós , "distinguishing"), from διακρίνω ( diakrī́nō , "to distinguish"). The word diacritic is a substantive, though it is sometimes used in an attributive sense, whereas diacritical is only an adjective. Some diacritics, such as the astute ( ◌́ ) and grave ( ◌̀ ), are often chosen accents. Diacritics may appear higher up or beneath a letter or in some other position such every bit inside the letter or between two letters.

The main utilise of diacritics in Latin script is to modify the audio-values of the letters to which they are added. Historically, English has used the diaeresis to indicate the right pronunciation of ambiguous words, such as "coöperate", without which the <oo> letter of the alphabet sequence could be misinterpreted to be pronounced /ˈkuːpəreɪt/. Other examples are the acute and grave accents, which can indicate that a vowel is to be pronounced differently than normal in that position, for example not reduced to /ə/ or silent as in the case of the two uses of the letter e in the noun résumé (equally opposed to the verb resume) and the assistance sometimes provided in the pronunciation of some words such as doggèd, learnèd, blessèd, and peculiarly words pronounced differently than normal in poetry (for instance movèd, breathèd).

Most other words with diacritics in English are borrowings from languages such as French to better preserve the spelling, such as the diaeresis on naïve and Noël , the astute from café , the circumflex in the word crêpe , and the cedilla in façade . All these diacritics, yet, are frequently omitted in writing, and English is the simply major modern European linguistic communication that does not apply diacritics in common.^{[ane] [2]}

In Latin-script alphabets in other languages, diacritics may distinguish between homonyms, such as the French là ("there") versus la ("the"), which are both pronounced /la/. In Gaelic blazon, a dot over a consonant indicates lenition of the consonant in question.

In other alphabetic systems, diacritics may perform other functions. Vowel pointing systems, namely the Arabic harakat ( ـِ ,ـُ ,ـَ,  etc.) and the Hebrew niqqud ( ַ◌, ֶ◌, ִ◌, ֹ◌, ֻ◌, etc.) systems, indicate vowels that are not conveyed by the basic alphabet. The Indic virama ( ् etc.) and the Arabic sukūn ( ـْـ  ) mark the absence of vowels. Cantillation marks point prosody. Other uses include the Early Cyrillic titlo stroke ( ◌҃ ) and the Hebrew gershayim ( ״  ), which, respectively, marking abbreviations or acronyms, and Greek diacritical marks, which showed that letters of the alphabet were being used as numerals. In Vietnamese and the Hanyu Pinyin official romanization system for Chinese, diacritics are used to mark the tones of the syllables in which the marked vowels occur.

In orthography and collation, a alphabetic character modified by a diacritic may be treated either as a new, distinct letter or as a letter of the alphabet–diacritic combination. This varies from linguistic communication to language and may vary from case to case within a language.

In some cases, letters are used as "in-line diacritics", with the aforementioned part as ancillary glyphs, in that they modify the sound of the letter preceding them, as in the case of the "h" in the English pronunciation of "sh" and "th".^[3] Such letter combinations are sometimes even collated as a single distinct letter. For example, the spelling sch was traditionally often treated equally a divide letter in German. Words with that spelling were listed later on all other words spelled with s in card catalogs in the Vienna public libraries, for case (before digitization).

Types [edit]

Amongst the types of diacritic used in alphabets based on the Latin script are:

• accents (and then chosen because the acute, grave, and circumflex were originally used to indicate dissimilar types of pitch accents in the polytonic transcription of Greek)
  • ◌́ – acute (Latin: apex)
  • ◌̀ – grave
  • ◌̂ – circumflex
  • ◌̌ – caron, wedge
  • ◌̋ – double astute
  • ◌̏ – double grave
  • ◌̃ – tilde
• dots
  • ◌̇ – overdot (Indic anusvara )
  • ◌̣ – an underdot is used in Rheinische Dokumenta and in Hebrew, Indic and Arabic transcription
  • ◌·◌ – interpunct
  • tittle, the superscript dot of the mod lowercase Latin i and j
  • ◌̈ – umlaut or diaeresis
  • ◌ː – triangular colon, used in the IPA to mark long vowels.
• curves
  • ◌̆ – breve
  • ◌̑ – inverted breve
  • ◌͗ – sicilicus, a palaeographic diacritic like to a caron or breve
  • ◌̃ – tilde
  • ◌҃ – titlo
• vertical stroke
  • ◌̩ – syllabic a subscript vertical stroke is used in IPA to marking syllabicity and in Rheinische Dokumenta to mark a schwa
• macron or horizontal line
  • ◌̄ – macron
  • ◌̱ – underbar
• overlays
  • ◌⃓ – vertical bar through the graphic symbol
  • ◌̷ – slash through the grapheme
  • ◌̵ – crossbar through the grapheme
• ring
  • ◌̊ – overring
• superscript curls
  • ◌̓ – apostrophe
  • ◌̒ – inverted apostrophe
  • ◌̔ – reversed apostrophe
  • ◌̉ – hook above (Vietnamese: dấu hỏi)
  • ◌̛ – horn (Vietnamese: dấu móc)
• subscript curls
  • ◌̦ – undercomma
  • ◌̧ – cedilla
  • ◌̡ ◌̢ – hook, left or right, sometimes superscript
  • ◌̨ – ogonek
• double marks (over or under two base characters)
  • ◌͝◌ – double breve
  • ◌͡◌ – tie bar or top ligature
  • ◌᷍◌ – double circumflex
  • ◌͞◌ – longum
  • ◌͠◌ – double tilde
• double sub/superscript diacritics
  • ◌̧ ̧ – double cedilla
  • ◌̨ ̨ – double ogonek
  • ◌̈ ̈ – double diaeresis
  • ◌ͅͺ – double ypogegrammeni

The tilde, dot, comma, titlo, apostrophe, bar, and colon are sometimes diacritical marks, only besides have other uses.

Non all diacritics occur adjacent to the letter they modify. In the Wali language of Ghana, for case, an apostrophe indicates a change of vowel quality, but occurs at the beginning of the word, as in the dialects 'Bulengee and 'Dolimi. Because of vowel harmony, all vowels in a word are affected, then the telescopic of the diacritic is the unabridged word. In abugida scripts, like those used to write Hindi and Thai, diacritics point vowels, and may occur above, below, before, after, or effectually the consonant letter they change.

The tittle (dot) on the letter i or the alphabetic character j, of the Latin alphabet originated as a diacritic to conspicuously distinguish i from the minims (downstrokes) of side by side letters. It first appeared in the 11th century in the sequence ii (as in ingeníí ), then spread to i adjacent to m, n, u, and finally to all lowercase is. The j, originally a variant of i, inherited the tittle. The shape of the diacritic developed from initially resembling today's acute accent to a long flourish by the 15th century. With the advent of Roman type it was reduced to the circular dot we have today.^[4]

Languages from Eastern Europe tend to use diacritics on both consonants and vowels, whereas in Western Europe digraphs are more typically used to alter consonant sounds. Most languages in Western Europe utilize diacritics on vowels, bated from English where there are typically none (with some exceptions).

Diacritics specific to non-Latin alphabets [edit]

Arabic [edit]

• (ئ ؤ إ أ and stand alone ء) hamza : indicates a glottal stop.
• (ــًــٍــٌـ) tanwīn ( تنوين ) symbols: Serve a grammatical part in Standard arabic. The sign ـً is about commonly written in combination with alif, e.g. ـًا .
• (ــّـ) shadda : Gemination (doubling) of consonants.
• (ٱ) waṣla : Comes most commonly at the outset of a discussion. Indicates a blazon of hamza that is pronounced only when the letter of the alphabet is read at the offset of the talk.
• (آ) madda : A written replacement for a hamza that is followed by an alif, i.east. ( ءا ). Read every bit a glottal stop followed by a long /aː/, due east.one thousand. ءاداب، ءاية، قرءان، مرءاة are written out respectively as آداب، آية، قرآن، مرآة . This writing rule does not employ when the alif that follows a hamza is not a part of the stem of the word, eastward.thou. نتوءات is not written out as نتوآت every bit the stem نتوء does not have an alif that follows its hamza .
• (ــٰـ) superscript alif (also "short" or "dagger alif": A replacement for an original alif that is dropped in the writing out of some rare words, e.g. لاكن is not written out with the original alif found in the give-and-take pronunciation, instead it is written out as لٰكن .
• ḥarakāt (In Standard arabic: حركات likewise called تشكيل tashkīl ):
  • (ــَـ) fatḥa (a)
  • (ــِـ) kasra (i)
  • (ــُـ) ḍamma (u)
  • (ــْـ) sukūn (no vowel)
• The ḥarakāt or vowel points serve two purposes:
  • They serve as a phonetic guide. They signal the presence of brusk vowels ( fatḥa , kasra , or ḍamma ) or their absence ( sukūn ).
  • At the last alphabetic character of a word, the vowel bespeak reflects the inflection case or conjugation mood.
    • For nouns, The ḍamma is for the nominative, fatḥa for the accusative, and kasra for the genitive.
    • For verbs, the ḍamma is for the imperfective, fatḥa for the perfective, and the sukūn is for verbs in the imperative or jussive moods.
• Vowel points or tashkīl should non be confused with consonant points or iʿjam ( إعجام ) – one, two or iii dots written above or below a consonant to distinguish between letters of the same or similar form.

Greek [edit]

These diacritics are used in improver to the acute, grave, and circumflex accents and the diaeresis:

• ◌ͺ – iota subscript ( ᾳ, εͅ, ῃ, ιͅ, οͅ, υͅ, ῳ )
• ῾◌ – crude breathing (Aboriginal Greek: δασὺ πνεῦμα, romanized: dasỳ pneûma , Latin: spīritus asper): aspiration
• ᾿◌ – smooth (or soft) breathing (Aboriginal Greek: ψιλὸν πνεῦμα, romanized: psilòn pneûma , Latin: spīritus lēnis): lack of aspiration

Hebrew [edit]

Genesis 1:9 "And God said, Allow the waters be nerveless".
Letters in black, niqqud in red, cantillation in blueish

• Niqqud
  • ּ – Dagesh
  • ּ – Mappiq
  • ֿ – Rafe
  • ׁ – Shin dot (at pinnacle right corner)
  • ׂ – Sin dot (at top left corner)
  • ְ – Shva
  • ֻ – Kubutz
  • ֹ◌ – Holam
  • ָ – Kamatz
  • ַ – Patakh
  • ֶ – Segol
  • ֵ – Tzeire
  • ִ – Hiriq
• Cantillation marks do not more often than not render correctly; refer to Hebrew cantillation#Names and shapes of the ta'amim for a complete table together with instructions for how to maximize the possibility of viewing them in a spider web browser
• Other
  • ׳ – Geresh
  • ״ – Gershayim

Korean [edit]

The diacritics 〮 and 〯 , known as Bangjeom ( 방점; 傍點 ), were used to marking pitch accents in Hangul for Middle Korean. They were written to the left of a syllable in vertical writing and above a syllable in horizontal writing.

Sanskrit and Indic [edit]

Devanagari script's (from Brahmic family) compound letters, which are vowels combined with consonants, have diacritics. Here क(Ka) is shown with vowel diacritics. That is: ◌T, T ᷇◌, ◌ T᷆, ◌͜, ◌̯, ◌̜̜, ◌̙, etc.

Syriac [edit]

• A dot higher up and a dot beneath a letter stand for [a], transliterated as a or ă,
• Two diagonally-placed dots above a letter represent [ɑ], transliterated as ā or â or å,
• Ii horizontally-placed dots below a letter represent [ɛ], transliterated as e or ĕ; frequently pronounced [ɪ] and transliterated as i in the East Syriac dialect,
• Two diagonally-placed dots beneath a letter represent [e], transliterated as ē,
• A dot underneath the Beth stand for a soft [v] sound, transliterated equally 5
• A tilde (~) placed under Gamel correspond a [dʒ] sound, transliterated as j
• The letter Waw with a dot below information technology represents [u], transliterated equally ū or u,
• The letter Waw with a dot above it represents [o], transliterated as ō or o,
• The letter Yōḏ with a dot below it represents [i], transliterated every bit ī or i,
• A tilde (~) under Kaph represent a [t͡ʃ] sound, transliterated every bit ch or č,
• A semicircle under Peh represents an [f] sound, transliterated as f or ph.

In addition to the in a higher place vowel marks, transliteration of Syriac sometimes includes ə, e̊ or superscript ^e (or ofttimes null at all) to represent an original Aramaic schwa that became lost later on at some bespeak in the evolution of Syriac.^[5] Some transliteration schemes find its inclusion necessary for showing spirantization or for historical reasons.^{[6] [7]}

Non-alphabetic scripts [edit]

Some not-alphabetic scripts also apply symbols that function substantially as diacritics.

• Not-pure abjads (such as Hebrew and Standard arabic script) and abugidas use diacritics for cogent vowels. Hebrew and Arabic also point consonant doubling and change with diacritics; Hebrew and Devanagari utilise them for strange sounds. Devanagari and related abugidas also employ a diacritical marker called a virama to mark the absence of a vowel. In addition, Devanagari uses the moon-dot chandrabindu ( ँ ).
• Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics use several types of diacritics, including the diacritics with alphabetic properties known as Medials and Finals. Although long vowels originally were indicated with a negative line through the Syllabic glyphs, making the glyph appear cleaved, in the mod forms, a dot above is used to indicate vowel length. In some of the styles, a ring above indicates a long vowel with a [j] off-glide. Another diacritic, the "inner ring" is placed at the glyph's head to alter [p] to [f] and [t] to [θ]. Medials such as the "w-dot" placed next to the Syllabics glyph indicates a [due west] being placed between the syllable onset consonant and the nucleus vowel. Finals indicate the syllable coda consonant; some of the syllable coda consonants in word medial positions, such every bit with the "h-tick", indicate the fortification of the consonant in the syllable following it.
• The Japanese hiragana and katakana syllabaries use the dakuten (◌゛) and handakuten (◌゜) (in Japanese: 濁点 and 半濁点) symbols, too known every bit nigori (濁 "muddying") or ten-x (点々 "dot dot") and maru (丸 "circumvolve"), to bespeak voiced consonants or other phonetic changes.
• Emoticons are unremarkably created with diacritic symbols, especially Japanese emoticons on popular imageboards.

Alphabetization or collation [edit]

Different languages employ different rules to put diacritic characters in alphabetical social club. French and Portuguese care for letters with diacritical marks the same equally the underlying letter for purposes of ordering and dictionaries.

The Scandinavian languages and the Finnish language, by dissimilarity, care for the characters with diacritics å, ä, and ö as distinct messages of the alphabet, and sort them afterward z. Unremarkably ä (a-umlaut) and ö (o-umlaut) [used in Swedish and Finnish] are sorted as equivalent to æ (ash) and ø (o-slash) [used in Danish and Norwegian]. Also, aa, when used equally an alternative spelling to å, is sorted as such. Other letters modified by diacritics are treated equally variants of the underlying alphabetic character, with the exception that ü is frequently sorted equally y.

Languages that treat accented messages equally variants of the underlying alphabetic character usually alphabetize words with such symbols immediately after like unmarked words. For instance, in German where two words differ simply by an umlaut, the word without it is sorted kickoff in German dictionaries (e.thousand. schon and then schön, or fallen and then fällen). However, when names are concerned (e.g. in telephone books or in author catalogues in libraries), umlauts are ofttimes treated every bit combinations of the vowel with a suffixed e; Austrian phone books at present treat characters with umlauts every bit separate messages (immediately post-obit the underlying vowel).

In Spanish, the graphic symbol ñ is considered a new letter of the alphabet different from n and collated betwixt due north and o, equally it denotes a different sound from that of a plain n. Only the absolute vowels á, é, í, ó, ú are not separated from the unaccented vowels a, e, i, o, u, equally the acute emphasis in Spanish only modifies stress within the word or denotes a distinction between homonyms, and does not alter the sound of a letter.

For a comprehensive list of the collating orders in various languages, see Collating sequence.

Generation with computers [edit]

Modern reckoner applied science was developed more often than not in English-speaking countries, and then information formats, keyboard layouts, etc. were developed with a bias favoring English language, a linguistic communication with an alphabet without diacritical marks. Efforts accept been made to create internationalized domain names that further extend the English language alphabet (e.g., "pokémon.com").

Depending on the keyboard layout, which differs amongst countries, it is more than or less easy to enter letters with diacritics on computers and typewriters. Some take their ain keys; some are created by first pressing the primal with the diacritic mark followed by the letter to place it on. Such a primal is sometimes referred to equally a dead primal, equally it produces no output of its own merely modifies the output of the key pressed subsequently it.

In modernistic Microsoft Windows and Linux operating systems, the keyboard layouts US International and UK International feature dead keys that permit one to type Latin messages with the acute, grave, circumflex, diaeresis, tilde, and cedilla found in Western European languages (specifically, those combinations constitute in the ISO Latin-1 character set) directly: ¨ + eastward gives ë, ~ + o gives õ, etc. On Apple Macintosh computers, there are keyboard shortcuts for the most common diacritics; ⌥ Option+E followed past a vowel places an astute accent, ⌥ Option+U followed past a vowel gives an umlaut, ⌥ Pick+C gives a cedilla, etc. Diacritics can exist composed in most X Window Arrangement keyboard layouts, equally well every bit other operating systems, such equally Microsoft Windows, using additional software.

On computers, the availability of code pages determines whether i can use sure diacritics. Unicode solves this problem by assigning every known character its own lawmaking; if this code is known, near modern estimator systems provide a method to input it. With Unicode, it is also possible to combine diacritical marks with nigh characters. However, every bit of 2019, very few fonts include the necessary support to correctly render graphic symbol-plus-diacritic(s) for the Latin, Cyrillic and some other alphabets (exceptions include Andika).

Languages with messages containing diacritics [edit]

The following languages accept letters that contain diacritics that are considered contained letters distinct from those without diacritics.

Latin/Roman messages [edit]

Baltic

• Latvian has the following messages: ā, ē, ī, ū, č, ģ, ķ, ļ, ņ, š, ž
• Lithuanian. In full general usage, where messages appear with the caron (č, š and ž), they are considered as separate letters from c, s or z and collated separately; messages with the ogonek (ą, ę, į and ų), the macron (ū) and the superdot (ė) are considered as separate messages too, simply not given a unique collation order.

Celtic

• Welsh uses the circumflex, diaeresis, astute, and grave on its seven vowels a, e, i, o, u, w, y (hence the composites â, ê, î, ô, û, ŵ, ŷ, ä, ë, ï, ö, ü, ẅ, ÿ, á, é, í, ó, ú, ẃ, ý, à, è, ì, ò, ù, ẁ, ỳ).
• Post-obit spelling reforms since the 1970s, Scottish Gaelic uses graves but, which can exist used on whatsoever vowel (à, è, ì, ò, ù). Formerly acute accents could be used on á, ó and é, which were used to signal a specific vowel quality. With the elimination of these accents, the new orthography relies on the reader having prior knowledge of pronunciation of a given word.
• Manx uses the single diacritic ç combined with h to give the digraph ⟨çh⟩ (pronounced /tʃ/) to mark the distinction between it and the digraph ⟨ch⟩ (pronounced /h/ or /x/). Other diacritics used in Manx included â, ê, ï, etc. to mark the stardom betwixt two similarly spelled words but with slightly differing pronunciation.
• Irish gaelic uses only acute accents to mark long vowels, following the 1948 spelling reform.
• Breton does non have a single orthography (spelling arrangement), merely uses diacritics for a number of purposes. The diaeresis is used to marker that two vowels are pronounced separately and non as a diphthong/digraph. The circumflex is used to marking long vowels, but normally simply when the vowel length is not predictable by phonology. Nasalization of vowels may be marked with a tilde, or post-obit the vowel with the letter <ñ>. The plural suffix -où is used every bit a unified spelling to correspond a suffix with a number of pronunciations in unlike dialects, and to distinguish this suffix from the digraph <ou> which is pronounced as /u:/. An apostrophe is used to distinguish c'h, pronounced /x/ as the digraph <ch> is used in other Celtic languages, from the French-influenced digraph ch, pronounced /ʃ/.

Finno-Ugric

• Estonian has a distinct alphabetic character õ, which contains a tilde. Estonian "dotted vowels" ä, ö, ü are similar to German language, merely these are also distinct letters, non similar High german umlauted letters. All four have their own identify in the alphabet, between w and 10. Carons in š or ž appear only in foreign proper names and loanwords. As well these are distinct messages, placed in the alphabet betwixt due south and t.
• Finnish uses dotted (umlauted) vowels (ä and ö). As in Swedish and Estonian, these are regarded every bit private letters, rather than vowel + umlaut combinations (as happens in German). Information technology also uses the characters å, š and ž in strange names and loanwords. In the Finnish and Swedish alphabets, å, ä and ö collate every bit separate letters after z, the others as variants of their base alphabetic character.
• Hungarian uses the umlaut, the acute and double astute accent (unique to Hungarian): (ö, ü), (á, é, í, ó, ú) and (ő, ű). The acute emphasis indicates the long form of a vowel (in case of i/í, o/ó, u/ú) while the double acute performs the same part for ö and ü. The acute accent tin can also indicate a different sound (more open, like in instance of a/á, due east/é). Both long and brusk forms of the vowels are listed separately in the Hungarian alphabet, but members of the pairs a/á, e/é, i/í, o/ó, ö/ő, u/ú and ü/ű are collated in dictionaries as the same letter.
• Livonian has the following letters: ā, ä, ǟ, ḑ, ē, ī, ļ, ņ, ō, ȯ, ȱ, õ, ȭ, ŗ, š, ț, ū, ž.

Germanic

• Faroese uses acutes and other special letters. All are considered separate messages and take their ain identify in the alphabet: á, í, ó, ú, ý and ø.
• Icelandic uses acutes and other special letters. All are considered separate messages, and have their own place in the alphabet: á, é, í, ó, ú, ý, and ö.
• Danish and Norwegian use additional characters similar the o-slash ø and the a-overring å. These letters come later on z and æ in the order ø, å. Historically, the å has developed from a ligature by writing a small superscript a over a lowercase a; if an å character is unavailable, some Scandinavian languages allow the substitution of a doubled a. The Scandinavian languages collate these letters later z, but have different collation standards.
• Swedish uses a-diaeresis (ä) and o-diaeresis (ö) in the place of ash (æ) and slashed o (ø) in improver to the a-overring (å). Historically, the diaeresis for the Swedish letters ä and ö, similar the German language umlaut, adult from a small Gothic e written above the letters. These letters are collated after z, in the order å, ä, ö.

Romance

• In Asturian, Galician and Spanish, the graphic symbol ñ is a letter of the alphabet and collated between n and o.
• Asturian uses Ḷ (lower case ḷ), and Ḥ (lower case ḥ)^[8]
• Leonese: could use ñ or nn.
• Romanian uses a breve on the alphabetic character a (ă) to indicate the sound schwa /ə/, as well equally a circumflex over the messages a (â) and i (î) for the sound /ɨ/. Romanian also writes a comma below the letters s (ș) and t (ț) to stand for the sounds /ʃ/ and /t͡s/, respectively. These characters are collated after their not-diacritic equivalent.

Slavic

• The Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian Latin alphabets take the symbols č, ć, đ, š and ž, which are considered separate letters and are listed as such in dictionaries and other contexts in which words are listed according to alphabetical society. They also accept one digraph including a diacritic, dž, which is also alphabetized independently, and follows d and precedes đ in the alphabetical order. The Serbian Cyrillic alphabet has no diacritics, instead it has a graphic symbol (glyph) for every letter of the alphabet of its Latin counterpart (including Latin messages with diacritics and the digraphs dž, lj and nj).
• The Czech alphabet uses the acute (á é í ó ú ý), caron (č ď ě ň ř š ť ž), and for ane alphabetic character (ů) the ring. (Note that in ď and ť the caron is modified to wait rather similar an apostrophe.)
• Polish has the following letters: ą ć ę ł ń ó ś ź ż. These are considered to be separate letters: each of them is placed in the alphabet immediately after its Latin analogue (e.g. ą between a and b), ź and ż are placed subsequently z in that guild.
• The Slovak alphabet uses the astute (á é í ó ú ý ĺ ŕ), caron (č ď ľ ň š ť ž dž), umlaut (ä) and circumflex accent (ô). All of those are considered split up letters and are placed directly after the original analogue in the alphabet.^[9]
• The basic Slovenian alphabet has the symbols č, š, and ž, which are considered separate letters and are listed as such in dictionaries and other contexts in which words are listed according to alphabetical order. Letters with a caron are placed right later on the letters as written without the diacritic. The letter đ may be used in not-transliterated foreign words, particularly names, and is placed later č and before d.

Turkic

• Azerbaijani includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö, Ş and Ü.
• Crimean Tatar includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö, Ş and Ü. Unlike Turkish, Crimean Tatar also has the letter Ñ.
• Gagauz includes the distinct Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ğ, I, İ, Ö and Ü. Different Turkish, Gagauz likewise has the letters Ä, Ê Ș and Ț. Ș and Ț are derived from the Romanaian alphabet for the aforementioned sounds. Sometime the Turkish Ş may exist used instead of Ș.
• Turkish uses a G with a breve (Ğ), two messages with an umlaut (Ö and Ü, representing two rounded forepart vowels), two letters with a cedilla (Ç and Ş, representing the affricate /tʃ/ and the fricative /ʃ/), and also possesses a dotted capital İ (and a dotless lowercase ı representing a high unrounded back vowel). In Turkish each of these are carve up letters, rather than versions of other letters, where dotted upper-case letter İ and lower case i are the same letter, every bit are dotless capital I and lowercase ı. Typographically, Ç and Ş are sometimes rendered with a subdot, every bit in Ṣ; when a hook is used, information technology tends to have more a comma shape than the usual cedilla^{[ citation needed ]}. The new Azerbaijani cluster, Crimean Tatar, and Gagauz alphabets are based on the Turkish alphabet and its aforementioned diacriticized letters, with some additions.
• Turkmen includes the singled-out Turkish alphabet letters Ç, Ö, Ş and Ü. In improver, Turkmen uses A with diaeresis (Ä) to stand for /æ/, Northward with caron (Ň) to represent the velar nasal /ŋ/, Y with astute (Ý) to represent the palatal approximant /j/, and Z with caron (Ž) to represent /ʒ/.

Other

• Albanian has two special letters Ç and Ë upper and lowercase. They are placed adjacent to the nigh similar letters in the alphabet, c and e correspondingly.
• Esperanto has the symbols ŭ, ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ and ŝ, which are included in the alphabet, and considered separate letters.
• Filipino too has the character ñ as a letter and is collated between n and o.
• Hawaiian uses the kahakō (macron) over vowels, although at that place is some disagreement over considering them as private letters. The kahakō over a vowel can completely change the meaning of a word that is spelled the same but without the kahakō.
• Kurdish uses the symbols Ç, Ê, Î, Ş and Û with other 26 standard Latin alphabet symbols.
• Lakota alphabet uses the caron for the letters č, ȟ, ǧ, š, and ž. Information technology likewise uses the acute emphasis for stressed vowels á, é, í, ó, ú, áŋ, íŋ, úŋ.
• Malay uses some diacritics such as á, ā, ç, í, ñ, ó, š, ú. Uses of diacritics was continued until belatedly 19th century except ā and ē.
• Maltese uses a C, 1000, and Z with a dot over them (Ċ, Ġ, Ż), and also has an H with an extra horizontal bar. For capital letter H, the actress bar is written slightly above the usual bar. For lowercase H, the extra bar is written crossing the vertical, like a t, and not touching the lower office (Ħ, ħ). The above characters are considered separate letters. The letter 'c' without a dot has fallen out of use due to redundancy. 'Ċ' is pronounced like the English 'ch' and 'yard' is used as a difficult c as in 'true cat'. 'Ż' is pronounced but similar the English language 'Z' as in 'Zebra', while 'Z' is used to brand the sound of 'ts' in English (like 'seismic sea wave' or 'maths'). 'Ġ' is used as a soft 'G' like in 'geometry', while the 'G' sounds like a hard 'Yard' similar in 'log'. The digraph 'għ' (called għajn after the Standard arabic alphabetic character name ʻayn for غ) is considered dissever, and sometimes ordered afterwards 'yard', whilst in other volumes it is placed betwixt 'n' and 'o' (the Latin letter 'o' originally evolved from the shape of Phoenician ʻayin, which was traditionally collated after Phoenician nūn).
• The romanization of Syriac uses the altered letters of. Ā, Č, Ḏ, Ē, Ë, Ġ, Ḥ, Ō, Š, Ṣ, Ṭ, Ū, Ž alongside the 26 standard Latin alphabet symbols.^[x]
• Vietnamese uses the horn diacritic for the messages ơ and ư; the circumflex for the letters â, ê, and ô; the breve for the letter ă; and a bar through the letter đ. Separately, it also has á, à, ả, ã and ạ, the 5 tones used for vowels besides the flat tone 'a'.

Cyrillic letters [edit]

• Belarusan and Uzbek Cyrillic have a letter of the alphabet ў.
• Belarusian, Bulgarian, Russian and Ukrainian have the letter й.
• Belarusian and Russian have the letter ё. In Russian, this alphabetic character is normally replaced by е, although it has a unlike pronunciation. The use of е instead of ё does not affect the pronunciation. Ё is always used in children'south books and in dictionaries. A minimal pair is все (vs'due east, "everybody" pl.) and всё (vs'o, "everything" northward. sg.). In Byelorussian the replacement by е is a mistake; in Russian, it is permissible to use either е or ё for ё but the erstwhile is more than common in everyday writing (as opposed to instructional or juvenile writing).
• The Cyrillic Ukrainian alphabet has the messages ґ, й and ї. Ukrainian Latynka has many more.
• Macedonian has the messages ќ and ѓ.
• In Bulgarian and Macedonian the possessive pronoun ѝ (ì, "her") is spelled with a grave emphasis in order to distinguish it from the conjunction и (i, "and").
• The astute emphasis " ́" above any vowel in Cyrillic alphabets is used in dictionaries, books for children and foreign learners to signal the word stress, it too can be used for disambiguation of similarly spelled words with different lexical stresses.

Diacritics that exercise not produce new letters [edit]

English [edit]

English language is one of the few European languages that does non take many words that contain diacritical marks. Instead, digraphs are the main way the Modernistic English alphabet adapts the Latin to its phonemes. Exceptions are unassimilated foreign loanwords, including borrowings from French and, increasingly, Spanish similar jalapeño; notwithstanding, the diacritic is too sometimes omitted from such words. Loanwords that ofttimes appear with the diacritic in English language include café, résumé or resumé (a usage that helps distinguish it from the verb resume), soufflé, and naïveté (encounter English terms with diacritical marks). In older practice (and fifty-fifty among some orthographically bourgeois modern writers) one may see examples such as élite, mêlée and rôle.

English speakers and writers one time used the diaeresis more often than now in words such every bit coöperation (from Fr. coopération), zoölogy (from Grk. zoologia), and seeër (at present more commonly see-er or simply seer) as a mode of indicating that next vowels belonged to divide syllables, but this practice has get far less common. The New Yorker mag is a major publication that continues to use the diaeresis in place of a hyphen for clarity and economic system of space.^[eleven]

A few English words, out of context, can only be distinguished from others by a diacritic or modified alphabetic character, including exposé, lamé, maté, öre, øre, pâté, and rosé. The same is true of résumé, alternatively resumé, but nevertheless information technology is regularly spelled resume. In a few words, diacritics that did non be in the original have been added for disambiguation, as in maté (from Sp. and Port. mate), saké (the standard Romanization of the Japanese has no accent marking), and Malé (from Dhivehi މާލެ), to clearly distinguish them from the English words "mate", "sake", and "male".

The acute and grave accents are occasionally used in poetry and lyrics: the acute to betoken stress overtly where information technology might be cryptic (rébel vs. rebél) or nonstandard for metrical reasons (caléndar), the grave to point that an commonly silent or elided syllable is pronounced (warnèd, parlìament).

In certain personal names such as Renée and Zoë, often two spellings be, and the preference volition be known only to those shut to the person themselves. Even when the name of a person is spelled with a diacritic, similar Charlotte Brontë, this may be dropped in English language language articles and even official documents such every bit passports either due to carelessness, the typist not knowing how to enter letters with diacritical marks, or for technical reasons—California, for example, does not allow names with diacritics, as the calculator system cannot process such characters. They as well appear in some worldwide company names and/or trademarks such equally Nestlé or Citroën.

Other languages [edit]

The following languages have letter-diacritic combinations that are not considered contained messages.

• Afrikaans uses a diaeresis to mark vowels that are pronounced separately and not equally ane would expect where they occur together, for example voel (to feel) as opposed to voël (bird). The circumflex is used in ê, î, ô and û by and large to indicate long close-mid, as opposed to open-mid vowels, for example in the words wêreld (world) and môre (morning, tomorrow). The acute emphasis is used to add emphasis in the aforementioned way as underlining or writing in bold or italics in English language, for case Dit is jóú boek (It is your volume). The grave accent is used to distinguish betwixt words that are dissimilar merely in placement of the stress, for case appel (apple) and appèl (appeal) and in a few cases where it makes no difference to the pronunciation but distinguishes between homophones. The 2 about usual cases of the latter are in the sayings òf... òf (either... or) and nòg... nòg (neither... nor) to distinguish them from of (or) and nog (once again, still).
• Aymara uses a diacritical horn over p, q, t, one thousand, ch.
• Catalan has the post-obit composite characters: à, ç, é, è, í, ï, ó, ò, ú, ü, fifty·l. The acute and the grave signal stress and vowel height, the cedilla marks the result of a historical palatalization, the diaeresis indicates either a hiatus, or that the letter u is pronounced when the graphemes gü, qü are followed by eastward or i, the interpunct (·) distinguishes the different values of ll/fifty·l.
• Some orthographies of Cornish such as Kernowek Standard and Unified Cornish utilize diacritics, while others such equally Kernewek Kemmyn and the Standard Written Course practise not (or only utilize them optionally in teaching materials).
• Dutch uses the diaeresis. For instance, in ruïne it means that the u and the i are separately pronounced in their usual way, and not in the manner that the combination ui is normally pronounced. Thus information technology works every bit a separation sign and not as an indication for an alternative version of the i. Diacritics tin be used for emphasis (érg koud for very cold) or for disambiguation between a number of words that are spelled the same when context doesn't indicate the correct significant (één appel = one apple, een appel = an apple; vóórkomen = to occur, voorkómen = to foreclose). Grave and acute accents are used on a very small number of words, by and large loanwords. The ç also appears in some loanwords.^[12]
• Faroese. Non-Faeroese accented messages are not added to the Faroese alphabet. These include é, ö, ü, å and recently also letters like š, ł, and ć.
• Filipino has the following blended characters: á, à, â, é, è, ê, í, ì, î, ó, ò, ô, ú, ù, û. The actual utilise of diacritics for Filipino is, however, uncommon, meant only to distinguish between homonyms with different stresses and meanings that either occur near each other in a text or to assistance the reader in ascertaining its otherwise ambiguous pregnant. The letter eñe is due to the Castilian alphabet and too, is considered a separate alphabetic character. The diacritics appears in Castilian loanwords and names if Castilian orthography is observed.
• Finnish. Carons in š and ž appear but in foreign proper names and loanwords, but may be substituted with sh or zh if and but if it is technically impossible to produce accented letters in the medium. Contrary to Estonian, š and ž are not considered distinct letters in Finnish.
• French uses v diacritics. The grave (accent grave) marks the sound /ɛ/ when over an e, equally in père ("begetter") or is used to distinguish words that are otherwise homographs such equally a/à ("has"/"to") or ou/où ("or"/"where"). The acute (emphasis aigu) is only used in "é", modifying the "east" to brand the sound /e/, every bit in étoile ("star"). The circumflex (accent circonflexe) generally denotes that an S once followed the vowel in Old French or Latin, every bit in fête ("political party"), the Onetime French being feste and the Latin beingness festum. Whether the circumflex modifies the vowel's pronunciation depends on the dialect and the vowel. The cedilla (cédille) indicates that a normally hard "c" (earlier the vowels "a", "o", and "u") is to be pronounced /s/, as in ça ("that"). The diaeresis (tréma) indicates that 2 adjacent vowels that would unremarkably be pronounced as ane are to be pronounced separately, as in Noël ("Christmas").
• Galician vowels tin bear an acute (á, é, í, ó, ú) to indicate stress or difference between two otherwise same written words (é, 'is' vs. eastward, 'and'), but the diaeresis (trema) is only used with ï and ü to bear witness two dissever vowel sounds in pronunciation. Only in foreign words may Galician employ other diacritics such as ç (common during the Center Ages), ê, or à.
• German uses the three umlauted characters ä, ö and ü. These diacritics indicate vowel changes. For instance, the word Ofen [ˈoːfən] "oven" has the plural Öfen [ˈøːfən]. The mark originated as a superscript e; a handwritten blackletter e resembles two parallel vertical lines, like a diaeresis. Due to this history, "ä", "ö" and "ü" tin can exist written every bit "ae", "oe" and "ue" respectively, if the umlaut letters are not available.
• Hebrew has many various diacritic marks known as niqqud that are used to a higher place and below script to represent vowels. These must be distinguished from cantillation, which are keys to pronunciation and syntax.
• The International Phonetic Alphabet uses diacritic symbols and characters to indicate phonetic features or secondary articulations.
• Irish uses the acute to indicate that a vowel is long: á, é, í, ó, ú. It is known every bit síneadh fada "long sign" or simply fada "long" in Irish gaelic. In the older Gaelic type, overdots are used to bespeak lenition of a consonant: ḃ, ċ, ḋ, ḟ, ġ, ṁ, ṗ, ṡ, ṫ.
• Italian mainly has the astute and the grave (à, è/é, ì, ò/ó, ù), typically to bespeak a stressed syllable that would not exist stressed under the normal rules of pronunciation simply sometimes besides to distinguish betwixt words that are otherwise spelled the same way (e.g. "due east", and; "è", is). Despite its rare use, Italian orthography allows the circumflex (î) also, in two cases: information technology can be found in old literary context (roughly up to 19th century) to signal a syncope (fêro→fecero, they did), or in modern Italian to signal the wrinkle of ″-2″ due to the plural catastrophe -i whereas the root ends with some other -i; east.k., s. demonio, p. demonii→demonî; in this case the circumflex as well signals that the discussion intended is not demoni, plural of "demone" by shifting the emphasis (demònî, "devils"; dèmoni, "demons").
• Lithuanian uses the acute, grave and tilde in dictionaries to indicate stress types in the language'due south pitch accent system.
• Maltese also uses the grave on its vowels to indicate stress at the cease of a word with 2 syllables or more than:– lowercase messages: à, è, ì, ò, ù ; uppercase messages: À, È, Ì, Ò, Ù
• Māori makes use of macrons to mark long vowels.
• Occitan has the post-obit blended characters: á, à, ç, é, è, í, ï, ó, ò, ú, ü, due north·h, due south·h. The astute and the grave indicate stress and vowel superlative, the cedilla marks the result of a historical palatalization, the diaeresis indicates either a hiatus, or that the letter u is pronounced when the graphemes gü, qü are followed by e or i, and the interpunct (·) distinguishes the different values of nh/n·h and sh/southward·h (i.e., that the letters are supposed to be pronounced separately, not combined into "ny" and "sh").
• Portuguese has the following composite characters: à, á, â, ã, ç, é, ê, í, ó, ô, õ, ú. The acute and the circumflex indicate stress and vowel meridian, the grave indicates crasis, the tilde represents nasalization, and the cedilla marks the result of a historical lenition.
• Acutes are too used in Slavic language dictionaries and textbooks to indicate lexical stress, placed over the vowel of the stressed syllable. This tin can also serve to disambiguate pregnant (e.g., in Russian писа́ть (pisáť) means "to write", only пи́сать (písať) means "to piss"), or "бо́льшая часть" (the biggest function) vs "больша́я часть" (the big office).
• Spanish uses the acute and the diaeresis. The acute is used on a vowel in a stressed syllable in words with irregular stress patterns. It can likewise exist used to "break up" a diphthong as in tío (pronounced [ˈti.o], rather than [ˈtjo] as it would be without the accent). Moreover, the acute can be used to distinguish words that otherwise are spelled alike, such as si ("if") and sí ("yes"), and likewise to distinguish interrogative and exclamatory pronouns from homophones with a unlike grammatical role, such every bit donde/¿dónde? ("where"/"where?") or como/¿cómo? ("as"/"how?"). The acute may likewise be used to avoid typographical ambivalence, as in ane ó 2 ("1 or 2"; without the astute this might be interpreted equally "ane 0 2". The diaeresis is used simply over u (ü) for it to be pronounced [westward] in the combinations gue and gui, where u is normally silent, for case ambigüedad. In poetry, the diaeresis may be used on i and u every bit a way to strength a hiatus. As foreshadowed above, in nasal ñ the tilde (squiggle) is not considered a diacritic sign at all, but a composite part of a singled-out glyph, with its own affiliate in the dictionary: a glyph that denotes the 15th alphabetic character of the Spanish alphabet.
• Swedish uses the acute to bear witness non-standard stress, for case in kafé (café) and resumé (résumé). This occasionally helps resolve ambiguities, such equally ide (hibernation) versus idé (thought). In these words, the astute is not optional. Some proper names utilize not-standard diacritics, such equally Carolina Klüft and Staël von Holstein. For foreign loanwords the original accents are strongly recommended, unless the give-and-take has been infused into the language, in which example they are optional. Hence crème fraîche only ampere. Swedish as well has the letters å, ä, and ö, merely these are considered distinct letters, not a and o with diacritics.
• Tamil does not take whatever diacritics in itself, only uses the Arabic numerals 2, 3 and 4 as diacritics to represent aspirated, voiced, and voiced-aspirated consonants when Tamil script is used to write long passages in Sanskrit.
• Thai has its own arrangement of diacritics derived from Indian numerals, which announce dissimilar tones.
• Vietnamese uses the acute (dấu sắc), the grave (dấu huyền), the tilde (dấu ngã), the underdot (dấu nặng) and the hook above (dấu hỏi) on vowels as tone indicators.
• Welsh uses the circumflex, diaeresis, acute, and grave on its seven vowels a, e, i, o, u, due west, y. The almost mutual is the circumflex (which information technology calls to bach, meaning "little roof", or acen grom "crooked accent", or hirnod "long sign") to denote a long vowel, usually to disambiguate it from a similar give-and-take with a short vowel. The rarer grave accent has the reverse effect, shortening vowel sounds that would commonly be pronounced long. The acute emphasis and diaeresis are besides occasionally used, to denote stress and vowel separation respectively. The w-circumflex and the y-circumflex are among the nearly unremarkably accented characters in Welsh, simply unusual in languages generally, and were until recently very hard to obtain in word-processed and HTML documents.

Transliteration [edit]

Several languages that are non written with the Roman alphabet are transliterated, or romanized, using diacritics. Examples:

• Arabic has several romanisations, depending on the type of the application, region, intended audience, country, etc. many of them extensively utilise diacritics, e.g., some methods apply an underdot for rendering emphatic consonants (ṣ, ṭ, ḍ, ẓ, ḥ). The macron is oftentimes used to render long vowels. š is often used for /ʃ/, ġ for /ɣ/.
• Chinese has several romanizations that utilise the umlaut, just only on u (ü). In Hanyu Pinyin, the four tones of Standard mandarin Chinese are denoted by the macron (first tone), acute (second tone), caron (third tone) and grave (fourth tone) diacritics. Example: ā, á, ǎ, à.
• Romanized Japanese (Rōmaji) occasionally uses macrons to mark long vowels. The Hepburn romanization system uses macrons to mark long vowels, and the Kunrei-shiki and Nihon-shiki systems use a circumflex.
• Sanskrit, also every bit many of its descendants, like Hindi and Bengali, uses a lossless romanization system, IAST. This includes several messages with diacritical markings, such as the macron (ā, ī, ū), over- and underdots (ṛ, ḥ, ṃ, ṇ, ṣ, ṭ, ḍ) as well equally a few others (ś, ñ).

Limits [edit]

Orthographic [edit]

Possibly the greatest number of combining diacritics required to compose a valid character in any Unicode language is 8, for the "well-known grapheme cluster in Tibetan and Ranjana scripts",ཧྐྵྨླྺྼྻྂ, or HAKṢHMALAWARAYAṀ.^[13]

Information technology is U+0F67 U+0F90 U+0FB5 U+0FA8 U+0FB3 U+0FBA U+0FBC U+0FBB U+0F82, or:
TIBETAN LETTER HA + TIBETAN SUBJOINED LETTER KA + TIBETAN SUBJOINED Alphabetic character SSA + TIBETAN SUBJOINED LETTER MA + TIBETAN SUBJOINED Letter LA + TIBETAN SUBJOINED Alphabetic character FIXED-FORM WA + TIBETAN SUBJOINED Letter Fixed-Grade RA + TIBETAN SUBJOINED LETTER FIXED-FORM YA + TIBETAN SIGN NYI ZLA NAA DA.

Unorthographic/ornamental [edit]

Some users take explored the limits of rendering in web browsers and other software by "decorating" words with multiple nonsensical diacritics per character. The outcome is called "Zalgo text". The composed bogus characters and words can be copied and pasted commonly via the system clipboard.

Instance: c̳̻͚̻̩̻͉̯̄̏͑̋͆̎͐ͬ͑͌́͢h̵͔͈͍͇̪̯͇̞͖͇̜͉̪̪̤̙ͧͣ̓̐̓ͤ͋͒ͥ͑̆͒̓͋̑́͞ǎ̡̮̤̤̬͚̝͙̞͎̇ͧ͆͊ͅo̴̲̺͓̖͖͉̜̟̗̮̳͉̻͉̫̯̫̍̋̿̒͌̃̂͊̏̈̏̿ͧ́ͬ̌ͥ̇̓̀͢͜s̵̵̘̹̜̝̘̺̙̻̠̱͚̤͓͚̠͙̝͕͆̿̽ͥ̃͠͡

See also [edit]

• Latin-script alphabets
• Alt code
• Category:Messages with diacritics
• Collating sequence
• Combining character
• Compose key
• English language terms with diacritical marks
• Heavy metal umlaut
• ISO/IEC 8859 8-bit extended-Latin-alphabet European grapheme encodings
• Latin alphabet
• List of Latin letters
• List of precomposed Latin characters in Unicode
• Listing of U.S. cities with diacritics
• Romanization
• wikt:Appendix:English language words with diacritics

References [edit]

1. ^ As an example, an article containing a diaeresis in "" and a also as a (Grafton, Anthony (2006-ten-23). "Books: The Nutty Professors, The history of bookish charisma". The New Yorker. )
2. ^ "The New Yorker'due south odd marking — the diaeresis". 16 December 2010. Archived from the original on 16 Dec 2010.
3. ^ Henry Sweet (1877) A Handbook of Phonetics, p 174–175: "Even messages with accents and diacritics [...] being only bandage for a few founts, act practically as new letters. [...] We may consider the h in sh and thursday merely every bit a diacritic written for convenience on a line with the alphabetic character information technology modifies."
4. ^ Oxford English Dictionary
5. ^ Nestle, Eberhard (1888). Syrische Grammatik mit Litteratur, Chrestomathie und Glossar. Berlin: H. Reuther's Verlagsbuchhandlung. [translated to English as Syriac grammar with bibliography, chrestomathy and glossary, past R. S. Kennedy. London: Williams & Norgate 1889].
6. ^ Coakley, J. F. (2002). Robinson's Paradigms and Exercises in Syriac Grammar (5th ed.). Oxford University Printing. ISBN 978-0-19-926129-i.
7. ^ Michaelis, Ioannis Davidis (1784). Grammatica Syriaca.
8. ^ Gramática de la Llingua Asturiana (PDF) (3rd ed.). Academia de la Llingua Asturiana. 2001. section 1.2. ISBN84-8168-310-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-25. Retrieved 2011-06-07 .
9. ^ http://www.juls.savba.sk/ediela/psp2000/psp.pdf page 12, section I.2
10. ^ S.P. Brock, "An Introduction to Syriac Studies", in J.H. Eaton (Ed.,), Horizons in Semitic Studies (1980)
11. ^ Norris, Mary (26 April 2012). "The Curse of the Diaeresis". The New Yorker . Retrieved xviii April 2014.
12. ^ van Geloven, Sander (2012). Diakritische tekens in het Nederlands (in Dutch). Utrecht: Hellebaard. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29.
13. ^ Steele, Shawn (2010-01-25). "Most combining characters in a Unicode glyph/character/whatever". Microsoft. Archived from the original on 2019-05-16. Retrieved 2019-11-25 .

External links [edit]

• Context of Diacritics | A research project Archived 2014-x-12 at the Wayback Machine
• Diacritics Project
• Unicode
• Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing, by J. C. Wells
• Notes on the use of the diacritics, by Markus Lång
• Entering International Characters (in Linux, KDE)
• Standard Graphic symbol Set for Macintosh PDF at Adobe.com

corpusmyse1953.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diacritic

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